Acknowledgements 2

1. INTRODUCTION 3

2. DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF A LEARNING GUIDE 4

2.1 Definition 4

2.2 Purpose 4

3. UNDERPINNING PHILOSOPHY AND THEORY 5

4. CRITERIA FOR THE COMPILATION OF LEARNER

GUIDES 6

4.1 Language 7

5. IMPLEMENTATION 7

5.1 Integration 7

2. Format 8
3. Process 9
4. Implications 10

6. CRITERIA FOR BEST PRACTICE 11
1. Key success factors 11
2. Structure of the learning guide 11
1. Organisational Component 12
2. Learning Component 14

 

7. CONCLUSION 16

8. REFERENCES 17

The following people contributed to this document:

Z Badenhorst Technikon Pretoria

C Broodryk Technikon SA

C Jameson Eastern Cape Technikon SA

G du Plooy Vaal Triangle Technikon SA

M Harmse Vaal Triangle Technikon SA

M Lotriet Technikon Northern Gauteng

A Mathole Technikon Pretoria

I Omar Peninsula Technikon

T Poswa Technikon Natal

L Smith Border Technikon SA

H Vahed ML Sultan Technikon SA

M Welgemoed Cape Technikon

Learning guides today must meet the requirements of outcomes-based education and training (OBET). Fundamental to the evolution of an "outcomes-based" educational system is a belief in the importance of developing a culture of learning, of promoting and supporting the concept of lifelong learning, of pursuing a belief in the capacity of every individual to perform to the limits of their potential, and of being committed to provision of the structures and mechanisms that will facilitate the above. Recognition of the differences between individual learners has produced a corresponding acceptance of the need to provide them with a wider variety of learning opportunities, presented in ways that reach out to every individual. It is in this context that the issue of learning guides is addressed.

The purpose of this document is to provide learning guide developers with guidelines on the design and development of such guides in order to meet the requirements of OBET. It is important to state that this document is by no means complete, as the following factors should also be considered in the design of the learning guide (not necessarily in this order):

• level descriptors,

• modularisation and

• assessment

This document is not meant to be prescriptive: what is included in the design and development of a specific learning guide depends on the set learning outcomes, the specific learner profile, the relevant National Qualifications Framework level and field, the specific qualification as registered with SAQA, the institution itself, as well as the industry-specific requirements. It is proposed that learning guide developers be given more freedom, and autonomy with regard to the choice, format and layout of learning guides than in the past (Wilkinson et al., 1999), provided the essential requirements of outcomes-based education and training are met.

The document is based on the framework agreed upon by the CTM-NQF Curriculum Development Core Committee 2000. It includes the definition of the concept of learning guide within the context of outcomes-based education and training, philosophical and theoretical underpinnings, suggestions for implementation and criteria for best practice.

The working group decided to accept, with minor adaptation, the definition of the concept of learning guide as it appeared in People Dynamics (Babb, 1999), since it reflects clearly some of the crucial principles of outcomes-based education and training:

A learning guide can be defined as a structured medium (need not be the printed version only), designed to direct learners through a series of learning activities; and direct them to a range of resources to achieve specified outcomes.

 

Harden et al. (1999) use the metaphor of a travel guide to clarify the concept of learning guide. Travellers read travel guides in advance to prepare for their journey, often mapping out their own itineraries, yet relying on the guide to point them towards the places of particular interest, and for information about practicalities such as accommodation and exchange rates. Through using the learning guide, learners can make optimal use of the learning opportunities available to them, and adapt these opportunities for their own needs. In this way, learners develop effective learning skills and become independent learners.

2.2 PurposeLearning guides serve the following purposes:

• informing learners on the learning outcomes,

• providing learners with what is necessary to support them in achieving the learning outcomes,
• motivating and encouraging learners to manage their own independent learning (as autonomous learners) in terms of the learning outcomes and appropriate learning strategies (how to learn)
• providing assessment information and activities for learners to interact with various components of the curriculum.

Put differently, the learning guide facilitates the process of learning in terms of the outcomes that should be achieved, what should be learnt (content) in order to achieve them, how the learner should learn (learning skills), how that which the learner learnt could be integrated with other aspects of the curriculum, and where the learner can find new/related information.

Note: the fact that content is included in the guide, does not mean the learning guide becomes content-based. The outcomes-based learning guide is the result of a structured design process in which outcomes and assessment are linked, after which appropriate content is identified and incorporated by means of learning strategies to facilitate learning, in other word to help the learner achieve the said outcomes. These are the aspects that learning guide developers need to consider and include to ensure that it meets OBET requirements (hereafter referred to OBET learning guide).

The learning guide emphasizes learner progress and makes the learning process clear, by assisting learners in accessing and understanding information, and transforming it into their own personal knowledge, skills, values and attitudes.

The principles of OBET are drawn from a combination of philosophies and learning theories. These include concepts such as equity and quality, dialectics, interpretivism, integrativeness, praxis, systematic pragmatism, ubuntu, holism, behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. The parties involved in the design and development of learning guides must focus on the philosophy of outcomes-based education and training. For this reason it is important that these parties have a clear understanding of the principles of OBET.

In addition to the above there are a number of learning principles (also referred to as psychological principles) that must be considered when selecting and planning any kind of teaching and learning materials (Kapp, 1997):

• Learners need structure and direction for their studies;

• For some learners, being informed of the outcomes for their studies reveals only the requirements - others are able to see the broader significance of the study they will persue;

• Learners learn at different rates;

• Learning experiences should be designed so that learners may proceed at their own pace and possibly at their own level, using materials that are most appropriate for them;

• All learners are not necessarily ready at the same time, to study a certain topic, nor do they necessarily want to learn the same content at the same time;

• Content should be sequenced and handled in small amounts;

• Learners can acquire more information and retain it longer when they see that the content is systematically organised and presented to them as separate but related concepts that build toward principles and problem-solving;

• Learning requires active participation;

• Learning is an activity and must be performed by the learner and not by the tutor through some kind of transmission process. One of the tutors’ main functions is to make content and process available to learners in the best possible form; and to facilitate the process of learning;

• Learning should be successful for continued learning to take place;

• When learners find they are successful, they will experience satisfaction and be motivated to continue their efforts to learn. (This requires opportunities for them to test understanding and application of knowledge and skills, and to be informed of success or the need for improvement.)

Outcomes-based learning guides must focus on identified outcomes, appearing as a variety of learning experiences attached to the study and experience of various topics, themes or integrated learning projects. In this environment the task of the educator becomes more than that of traditional lecturer, and rather that of facilitator of learning via the learning guide.

Learning guides should be interesting, motivating, informative, illustrative, interpretive, interactive and supportive. They should be visually appealing, well produced and carefully prepared with the material set out in a logical and accessible way. They should be revised regularly and tailored to meet the learning needs of the learner, as well as industry requirements.

The design and development of learning guides for Outcomes-based Education and Training specifically, require adherence to the following principles.

• Lifelong learning should be encouraged;

• Material should promote critical thinking and problem solving skills as

essential life skills;

• Elements that promote emotional, moral and social development should be embedded in the material;

• Material should follow the integrated approach to learning;

• Material should encourage "hands-on" experiences, where possible;

• Material should provide for continuous progression of opportunities for development, allowing learners opportunities for a gradual refinement of perception;

• Material should provide for individual differences and promote learner

paced learning;

• Material should be gender appropriate and sensitive; and

• Material should take account of multi-perspectivity, and the linking of

content/concepts to skills.

To justify the time, effort and expense which the development of any form of learning guide will entail, it is necessary that the product subscribe to the following general principles which reflect much of the same message:

• It should facilitate ready (improved) access to learning,

• contribute positively to the relationship between learner and educator,

• be a user-friendly instrument,

• cater equitably for all kinds of learners, in respect of language, culture, etc.,

• contribute to more effective, efficient and comprehensive learning,

• promote/enhance the practice of learning itself,

• cater for the learners' need to become independent learners, and

• play a part in the development of both specific and critical cross-field outcomes.

English is the current language of instruction at most institutions. Most learners are second language speakers of English and this cannot be ignored. It is recommended that learning guide developers (and relevant stakeholders) look at the learner profile, as well as the industry profile in pitching the language to be used in the guide as part of the list of specifications. The learner must be prepared progressively in the use of the terminology in the specific field of learning (here authors can also be guided by the SAQA level descriptors.) At some institutions a copy editor is already part of the development team, and this seems to be a successful quality assurance element built into the process.

The design of a learning guide forms part of a bigger picture of programme design. During the process of programme design all stakeholders are involved in determining the specifications for the programme around the intended learning outcomes (keeping level descriptors, learner profiles and industry requirements in mind).

Decisions need furthermore be made on level descriptors, modularisation and assessment strategies. The implication of this is that policies and procedures leading from the discussion papers on level descriptors, assessment and modularisation will impact significantly on the design and development of the learning guide.

The design of the learning guide is a further step after the design of the qualification/programme. Level descriptors can be used during this phase of design to ensure that the learner will have progressed to the intended level upon completion of the study. Level descriptors are utilised to formulate the learning outcomes/objectives (derived from the specified outcomes for the qualification). Next in the process of design is the formulation of an assessment strategy, which comprises assessment criteria, and methods, also in line with the relevant outcomes/objectives. Here again the level descriptors can be utilised by the team to ensure that learners will progress to the required level. An important aspect, is directing the learner through a range of learning activities, ensuring they go through the necessary learning process in engaging with the material (Compare Definition of learning guide, par. 2.1). The learning guide is instrumental in helping the learner go through the phases of the learning process, learning how, when and to what extent the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes should be obtained, understood and employed in order to achieve the learning outcomes/objectives.

Learning guides can have a variety of physical appearances:

• in print (hard format):
• book form
• pocket size
• loose leaf (to add additional pages) for a file system

• electronic (soft format):

• soft-ware packages
• on internet

• Multi and mixed media

Decisions on the format should be informed not only by the outcomes, but also by:

• the learner profile,
• availability/sharing of institutional resources and
• mode of delivery.

As explained in previous paragraphs, the design and development of learning guides form part of a bigger picture. An approach of integration of level descriptors, modularisation and assessment should be adopted in the design of a learning guide before the process of learning guide development commences. The design and development of learner guides should be viewed as an integral part of the current programme development activities departments are engaged in. This will counter the possible behaviouristic tendencies in approaches to learning.

One possible example (among many others, of course) of a technikon-wide learning guide development process is given below:

• base learning guide development on modules of work;
• circulate a questionnaire to all stakeholders (including academic staff) with an offer of assistance regarding learning guide development;
• run faculty based workshops to discuss key issues and build capacity with regard to the writing of materials. (Some key issues to be covered: the purpose of learning guides, types of learning guides, key features of a learning guide, context and integration in relation to curriculum, components of a learning guide, philosophy and theories underpinning learning guides, policies, formats, styles, preparation, references, etc.)
• have regular meetings of the development team to reach consensus on key issues (a team may consist of a learning guide developer, relevant content specialist, Academic development specialist / Education specialist, language practitioner (copy editor), graphic designer, learner.
• work to a strict time frame and deadlines so that the learning guide is ready for use at the beginning of the academic programme;
• pilot the draft; evaluate the pilot,
• revise the guide in relation to response;
• centralise printing for uniformity; and
• revise the learning guides regularly.

Outcomes-based learning guides are an important aid for autonomous learning in an integrated curriculum and should be taken forward in a careful and considered way by teams who have the resources (time, human and financial), capacity, support and expertise to do so. Institutions will have to provide support and assistance in this regard.

Having a system of learning guides in place, the process of learning can be facilitated and managed as discussed in section 2.2. Apart from these advantages, however, there are some points of concern that need to be considered and guarded against during the process.

• Staff may feel threatened, as a learning guide could be viewed as a substitute for the lecturer. In distance education the learning guide is the substitute for the lecturer. Perhaps a careful balance should be kept between facilitation for the distance education learner and that of the learner in contact education, although with the necessary changes in approach to teaching (and learning), such a comprehensive learning guide (as for distance education) can have very specific advantages for the lecturer. More time can be spent on learning area specific issues and the relationship between critical cross-field outcomes and the learning outcomes/objectives.

• Learning guides may encourage behaviouristic approaches to learning. This can be addressed and avoided already in the design phase, since an integrated approach is adopted in the learning strategy, accommodating the different learning styles.

• Learners may feel left on their own. Again in the design phase this potential problem can be addressed by building in interactivity, requiring group/peer activities, assigning tutors, mentors, etc.

• Learning guides could be "boring". To avoid this the design and development team/party need simply follow principles of outcomes-based education and training which demands a variety of learning opportunities, presented in ways which reach out to every individual.

• Poor technical quality may retard, rather than promote learning. This again is addressed in the design of the learning guide, where, as part of quality assurance, specifications are drawn up in consultation with all parties involved, to which the development team must adhere.

• If not designed properly, involving all stakeholders, it could encourage "tunnel vision", as ideas of the writer could hinder lateral thinking. Another solution for this is to adopt a team approach.

The following factors will influence the effectiveness of the learning guide:

• A quality assurance system. This should be built into the entire process of design and development of learning guides - from the needs analysis, to the evaluation phase. The principle of learning-centredness should apply throughout: learning guides are designed according to learner needs (learner profile) and industry requirements. It is furthermore important to refer to the SAQA level descriptors for the different levels of learner competence and to conduct the design and development accordingly.
• The adoption of the following phases: analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation
• Inclusion of all stakeholders in the process of design
• Outcomes as point of departure, linked with assessment criteria, also communicated as such to the learner.

NB: The mere inclusion of these components do not guarantee that the learning guide will be outcomes based. How the relevant components are linked and the linkage pointed out to the learner, are the aspects that must be included, to meet the requirements of OBET.

It is suggested that an OBET Learner Guide might consist of two components: An Organisational and a Learning Component

• Welcome
• A purpose statement for the qualification of which the module forms a part. This should point to the overall competence a learner will have acquired, at the completion of the qualification.
• Prerequisite knowledge (if applicable)

• Logistics eg. times, duration of learning sessions, venues, etc.

• Advance organiser (linking learning to prior learning)

• Table of contents for the unit

• Specific outcomes/Learning Introduction

• Activities and assessment (i.e. formative and summative assessment, clearly linked to outcomes)

• Conclusion/Summary

• References/bibliography

• Cover page

A cover page for the learner guide may include the following:

Logo of the Technikon

Name of faculty

Name of department

Name of module

Relevant code (if required by institution)

Name of author

Date of publication

Indication: "Copyright reserved"

• Table of contents
• References

How the outcomes and assessment are linked and the linkage pointed out to the learner, are the aspects that must be included to meet the requirements of OBET. Components other than these could then be built in, depending on decisions made about the content, instructional strategy, assessment strategy, and even the evaluation strategy.

• Activities time table

(including lectures and all other planned appointments, where applicable)

 

• Structure

a diagram showing the overall structure of the qualification/programme, showing how the modules/units of learning (outcomes) and Experiential Learning relate to one another

 

An overview of the modules/different parts within a qualification, including the NQF level, field, sub-fields and credits.

 

occupation-related information could indicate how the module relates to specific occupations. Important resources related to the occupation could be included.

 

• Level descriptors

• Learning assumed to be in place

rules of access at entrance level

Additional requirements

Recognition of prior learning

• Articulation possibilities

• Contact details of lecturer(s)/tutor(s)

name(s), e-mail address, etc.

• Contact details of programme/module co-ordinator (where he/she is not the lecturer)

• Statement of roles and responsibilities:

Here it could be made clear what commitments would be expected from the learner and what he/she may expect in return,

 

• Bibliography of compulsory textbooks and recommended literature/sources

• Brief information on experiential training

When it will take place, where to get information, how it will be assessed and by whom.

 

• Assessment

assessment criteria

methods of assessment

assessment time table

composition of semester/year mark (including assignments)

explanation of grading/rating system

minimum requirements

promotion requirements

penalties

information on the assessment of prior learning where applicable

an explanation of how integrated assessment will be used to determine whether the overall competence for the qualification has been attained,

an explanation of how continuous assessment is to be done to determine the year/term/module mark.

Information on the format of the examinations - open book/closed book, duration, and other requirements, such as what type of pocket calculator may be used.

Information on self-assessment exercises (if applicable)

Assignments

specific assignments

due dates

requirements for the completion of self-study assignments (including acceptable reference and numbering techniques and other requirements for professional presentation)

statement on plagiarism

 

• Instructions for use (if necessary)

• Learner support

Glossary of difficult and unfamiliar terms/concepts

List of verbs/illustrative actions (e.g. Blooms taxonomy)

Information on teaching and learning methods or strategies specific to the module (e.g. problem- based learning, project-oriented learning, etc).

Guidelines for learning methods and techniques, time allocation, prioritisation, etc.

Guidelines for the acquisition of information skills (e.g. the use of library resources)

 

• Clarification of the purpose of the qualification/module/unit (that part for which the learning guide is intended, which includes an explanation to learners of how it is linked to the outcomes and the assessment.

An overview in the form of an advance organiser - hooking onto prior

learning and introducing students to the more detailed learning to follow This could be a diagram.

 

(Learning guides may be cross-referenced to emphasise interrelationships)

 

• Prerequisite knowledge,

• Outcomes

The starting point to outcomes-based programming is a clear definition of the outcomes that students are to achieve. The following outcomes are relevant:

 

Exit Level outcomes

Specified outcomes

Critical cross-field outcomes that will be covered in this course/part of the course

 

• Assessment criteria should:

be written for each specific outcome. (It should be made clear in the learning guide how it will be established whether a learner have achieved the ability stated in the outcome. The level and quality of performance required is prescribed.)

 

• Method of assessment and assessment criteria

- Assessment methods (assignments; multiple choice tests; oral examinations; written assignments; group presentations; research projects, etc.) should match the learning modality

- New methods of assessment with which students are not familiar should be explained to them in short - this could be done per module, per assignment or per test.

- The different kinds of written assessment strategies should be explained, e.g. short paragraphs, discussions, critical comparisons, etc. Keywords to indicate the study domains (cognitive, psychomotoric and affective) is important.

• The concepts of integrated, continuous, formative and summative assessment should be made clear to students

• Interactive activities and tasks

Tasks and activities can be seen as outcomes in its most refined form. Outcomes Based learning materials need to involve learners actively. This does not necessarily mean that space should be provided in the learner guide for them in order to write or do exercises, but that activities (for whole classes, individuals, pairs or groups) should be clearly stated to form the core of learning.

 

• Resources, materials and references

These could include human, printed, audio-visual, and other resources.

The expected interaction with other materials and reference literature that form part of the "package" should be communicated to students clearly and throughout.

The location of resources and support could be spelt out clearly.

 

• Prior preparation that needs to be done by the student

• Self assessment exercises

• Summary/conclusion, if preferred

• References/bibliography

In order to assure the feasibility, accountability and sustainability of materials that are outcomes-based, policy should be in place at every institution for written support materials to be evaluated from time to time. This would include both peer and learner evaluation on the quality and the effectiveness of the material. Checklists and learner feedback forms could be used in this regard.

In this document certain guidelines for the design and development of learning guides were proposed. The diversity of learning fields, qualifications and programmes in technikon education challenges educators to be innovative and resourceful with these guidelines - using them in ways that fit the relevant purpose and circumstances.

Each institution's explorations are contextually unique. Thus, while literature may highlight areas for consideration, changes necessary to meet the requirements of the national educational policy must be identified by each institution and the degree to which these changes could be made within various contexts, must be explored.

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DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 1997. Outcomes Based Education in South Africa. Background information for educators. Pretoria: Government Printers.

HARDEN, R.M., LAIDLAW,J.M. & HESKETH, E.A. 1999. Study guides – their use and preparation. Medical Teacher, 21:248–266.

KAPP, C. 1997. Notes from: Designing teaching material for Outcomes Based Education: a higher education perspective. Workshop presented at Devon Valley, Stellenbosch, 21-23 October 1997. Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch (Training and Development).

LEWIS, R. 1984. How to help learners assess their progress. Huddersfield: CET

HARDEN, R.M. et al. 1990. What is … a study guide? Medical Teacher, 12:7–12.

MELTON, R.F. 1997. Objectives, competencies and learning outcomes. London: Kogan Page.

OLIVIER, C. 1999. Let’s educate, train and learn outcomes-based. Pretoria:Benedic.

SAIDE. 1999. Criteria for quality distance education in South Africa: draft policy guidelines. Johannesburg: SAIDE.

SOUTH AFRICAN QUALIFICATIONS AUTHORITY. 1999. Guidelines for the assessment of NQF registered unit standards and qualifications. Draft for public comment. Pretoria: SAQA.

UNISA. 1997. Materials design for distance education: strategies and reflections. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

WILKINSON, A.C., BÜCHNER, J. & SMIT, J. 1999. A framework for the development of flexible print-based resources in South African higher education. South African Journal for Higher Education, 13(2):118-128.

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